Hawkley, L. C. & Cacioppo, J. T. Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Ann. Behav. Med. 40, 218–227 (2010). This is a comprehensive overview of theoretical and empirical foundations of loneliness research.
Google Scholar
Heu, L. C. et al. Loneliness across cultures with different levels of social embeddedness: a qualitative study. Pers. Relation. 28, 379–405 (2021).
Long, C. R. & Averill, J. R. Solitude: an exploration of benefits of being alone. J. Theory Soc. Behav. 33, 21–44 (2003).
Galanaki, E. Are children able to distinguish among the concepts of aloneness, loneliness, and solitude? Int. J. Behav. Dev. 28, 435–443 (2004).
Goossens, L. et al. Loneliness and solitude in adolescence: a confirmatory factor analysis of alternative models. Pers. Individ. Differ. 47, 890–894 (2009).
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T. & Stephenson, D. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality. A meta-analytic review. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 227–237 (2015).
Google Scholar
Hawkley, L. C. & Capitanio, J. P. Perceived social isolation, evolutionary fitness and health outcomes: a lifespan approach. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0114 (2015).
Google Scholar
Griffin, S. C., Williams, A. B., Ravyts, S. G., Mladen, S. N. & Rybarczyk, B. D. Loneliness and sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychol. Open 7, 2055102920913235 (2020).
Google Scholar
Park, C. et al. The effect of loneliness on distinct health outcomes: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Psychiat. Res. 294, 113514 (2020).
Kung, C. S. J., Kunz, J. S. & Shields, M. A. Economic aspects of loneliness in Australia. Aust. Econ. Rev. 54, 147–163 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mihalopoulos, C. et al. The economic costs of loneliness: a review of cost-of-illness and economic evaluation studies. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 55, 823–836 (2020).
Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T. & Cacioppo, S. The growing problem of loneliness. Lancet 391, 426 (2018).
Google Scholar
Holt-Lunstad, J. The potential public health relevance of social isolation and loneliness: prevalence, epidemiology, and risk factors. Public Policy Aging Rep. 27, 127–130 (2017).
Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. Government’s work on tackling loneliness. GOV.uk www.gov.uk/government/collections/governments-work-on-tackling-loneliness (2018).
CDU/CSU & SPD. Koalitionsvertrag zwischen CDU, CSU und SPD. The Bundesregierung https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/koalitionsvertrag-zwischen-cdu-csu-und-spd-195906 (2018).
Kawaguchi, S. Japan’s ‘minister of loneliness’ in global spotlight as media seek interviews. The Mainichi https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20210514/p2a/00m/0na/051000c (2021).
Baarck, J. et al. Loneliness In The EU. Insights From Surveys And Online Media Data. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/28343 (Publications Office of the European Union, 2021).
Luhmann, M. & Hawkley, L. C. Age differences in loneliness from late adolescence to oldest old age. Dev. Psychol. 52, 943–959 (2016).
Google Scholar
Cohen-Mansfield, J., Hazan, H., Lerman, Y. & Shalom, V. Correlates and predictors of loneliness in older-adults. A review of quantitative results informed by qualitative insights. Int. Psychogeriatr. 28, 557–576 (2016). This is a comprehensive review of empirical studies on individual-level predictors of loneliness among older adults.
Google Scholar
Dahlberg, L., McKee, K. J., Frank, A. & Naseer, M. A systematic review of longitudinal risk factors for loneliness in older adults. Aging Ment. Health 26, 225–249 (2022).
Google Scholar
Hawkley, L. C., Buecker, S., Kaiser, T. & Luhmann, M. Loneliness from young adulthood to old age: explaining age differences in loneliness. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 46, 39–49 (2022).
Google Scholar
van Ours, J. C. What a drag it is getting old? Mental health and loneliness beyond age 50. Appl. Econ. 53, 3563–3576 (2021).
Nicolaisen, M. & Thorsen, K. Who are lonely? Loneliness in different age groups (18–81 years old), using two measures of loneliness. Int. J. Aging Hum. Dev. 78, 229–257 (2014).
Google Scholar
Qualter, P. et al. Loneliness across the life span. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 250–264 (2015). This article reviews and expands the evolutionary theory of loneliness and reviews empirical findings on the development of loneliness across the life span.
Google Scholar
Mund, M., Freuding, M. M., Möbius, K., Horn, N. & Neyer, F. J. The stability and change of loneliness across the life span: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 24, 24–52 (2020).
Google Scholar
Madsen, K. R. et al. Loneliness and ethnic composition of the school class: a nationally random sample of adolescents. J. Youth Adolesc. 45, 1350–1365 (2016).
Google Scholar
Lasgaard, M., Friis, K. & Shevlin, M. “Where are all the lonely people?” A population-based study of high-risk groups across the life span. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiat. Epidemiol. 51, 1373–1384 (2016).
Anderssen, N., Sivertsen, B., Lønning, K. J. & Malterud, K. Life satisfaction and mental health among transgender students in Norway. BMC Public Health 20, 138 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kuyper, L. & Fokkema, T. Loneliness among older lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults: the role of minority stress. Arch. Sex. Behav. 39, 1171–1180 (2010).
Google Scholar
Hughes, M. et al. Predictors of loneliness among older lesbian and gay people. J. Homosex. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2021.2005999 (2021).
Google Scholar
Buczak-Stec, E., König, H.-H. & Hajek, A. Sexual orientation and psychosocial factors in terms of loneliness and subjective well-being in later life. Gerontologist https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnac088 (2022).
Google Scholar
Sutin, A. R., Stephan, Y., Carretta, H. & Terracciano, A. Perceived discrimination and physical, cognitive, and emotional health in older adulthood. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiat. 23, 171–179 (2015).
Zhang, M., Barreto, M. & Doyle, D. Stigma-based rejection experiences affect trust in others. Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci. 11, 308–316 (2020).
Buecker, S., Maes, M., Denissen, J. J. A. & Luhmann, M. Loneliness and the Big Five personality traits: a meta–analysis. Eur. J. Pers. 34, 8–28 (2020).
Heinrich, L. M. & Gullone, E. The clinical significance of loneliness: a literature review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 26, 695–718 (2006).
Google Scholar
Hawkley, L. C. et al. From social structural factors to perceptions of relationship quality and loneliness: the Chicago health, aging, and social relations study. J. Gerontol. B 63, S375–S384 (2008).
Bronfenbrenner, U. The Ecology Of Human Development: Experiments By Nature And Design (Harvard Univ. Press, 1979).
Bühler, J. L. & Nikitin, J. Sociohistorical context and adult social development: new directions for 21st century research. Am. Psychol. 75, 457–469 (2020).
Google Scholar
Drewelies, J., Huxhold, O. & Gerstorf, D. The role of historical change for adult development and aging: towards a theoretical framework about the how and the why. Psychol. Aging 34, 1021–1039 (2019). This article introduces the HIDECO framework.
Google Scholar
Oishi, S. Socioecological psychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65, 581–609 (2014).
Google Scholar
Rentfrow, P. J. Geographical psychology. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32, 165–170 (2020).
Google Scholar
de Jong Gierveld, J. & Tesch-Römer, C. Loneliness in old age in Eastern and Western European societies: theoretical perspectives. Eur. J. Ageing 9, 285–295 (2012). This article summarizes theoretical perspectives on cross-national differences in loneliness with a focus on European countries.
Google Scholar
Fiori, K. L., Windsor, T. D. & Huxhold, O. The increasing importance of friendship in late life: understanding the role of sociohistorical context in social development. Gerontology 66, 286–294 (2020).
Google Scholar
Berkman, L. F., Glass, T., Brissette, I. & Seeman, T. E. From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Soc. Sci. Med. 51, 843–857 (2000).
Google Scholar
Hertz, N. The Lonely Century: How To Restore Human Connection In A World That’s Pulling Apart (Sceptre, 2021).
Snell, K. D. M. The rise of living alone and loneliness in history. Soc. Hist. 42, 2–28 (2017).
Anttila, T., Selander, K. & Oinas, T. Disconnected lives: trends in time spent alone in Finland. Soc. Indic. Res. 150, 711–730 (2020).
Hamamura, T. Cross-temporal changes in people’s ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32, 17–21 (2020).
Google Scholar
Buecker, S., Denissen, J. J. A. & Luhmann, M. A propensity-score matched study of changes in loneliness surrounding major life events. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 121, 669–690 (2021).
Google Scholar
Rudolph, C. W., Costanza, D. P., Wright, C. & Zacher, H. Cross-temporal meta-analysis: a conceptual and empirical critique. J. Bus. Psychol. 35, 733–750 (2020).
Twenge, J. M. The age of anxiety? The birth cohort change in anxiety and neuroticism, 1952–1993. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 79, 1007–1021 (2000).
Google Scholar
Clark, D. M. T., Loxton, N. J. & Tobin, S. J. Declining loneliness over time: evidence from American colleges and high schools. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 41, 78–89 (2015).
Google Scholar
Xin, S. & Xin, Z. Birth cohort changes in Chinese college students’ loneliness and social support. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 40, 398–407 (2016).
Buecker, S., Mund, M., Chwastek, S., Sostmann, M. & Luhmann, M. Is loneliness in emerging adults increasing over time? A preregistered cross-temporal meta-analysis and systematic review. Psychol. Bull. 147, 787–805 (2021). This article provides the most comprehensive cross-temporal meta-analysis on historical changes in loneliness published to date.
Google Scholar
Yan, Z., Yang, X., Wang, L., Zhao, Y. & Yu, L. Social change and birth cohort increase in loneliness among Chinese older adults: a cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1995-2011. Int. Psychogeriatr. 26, 1773–1781 (2014).
Google Scholar
Stedman, R. C., Connelly, N. A., Heberlein, T. A., Decker, D. J. & Allred, S. B. The end of the (research) world as we know it? Understanding and coping with declining response rates to mail surveys. Soc. Nat. Resour. 32, 1139–1154 (2019).
Ko, S. Y., Wei, M., Rivas, J. & Tucker, J. R. Reliability and validity of scores on a measure of stigma of loneliness. Couns. Psychol. 50, 96–122 (2022).
Penning, M. J., Liu, G. & Chou, P. H. B. Measuring loneliness among middle-aged and older adults: the UCLA and de Jong Gierveld loneliness scales. Soc. Indic. Res. 118, 1147–1166 (2014).
Danneel, S., Maes, M., Vanhalst, J., Bijttebier, P. & Goossens, L. Developmental change in loneliness and attitudes toward aloneness in adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 47, 148–161 (2018).
Google Scholar
von Soest, T., Luhmann, M. & Gerstorf, D. The development of loneliness through adolescence and young adulthood: its nature, correlates, and midlife outcomes. Dev. Psychol. 56, 1919–1934 (2020).
Hülür, G. et al. Cohort differences in psychosocial function over 20 years: current older adults feel less lonely and less dependent on external circumstances. Gerontology 62, 354–361 (2016).
Google Scholar
Suanet, B. & van Tilburg, T. G. Loneliness declines across birth cohorts: the impact of mastery and self-efficacy. Psychol. Aging 34, 1134–1143 (2019).
Google Scholar
Victor, C. R. et al. Has loneliness amongst older people increased? An investigation into variations between cohorts. Ageing Soc. 22, 585–597 (2002).
Nyqvist, F., Cattan, M., Conradsson, M., Näsman, M. & Gustafsson, Y. Prevalence of loneliness over ten years among the oldest old. Scand. J. Public. Health 45, 411–418 (2017).
Google Scholar
Dahlberg, L., Agahi, N. & Lennartsson, C. Lonelier than ever? Loneliness of older people over two decades. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 75, 96–103 (2018).
Google Scholar
Eloranta, S., Arve, S., Isoaho, H., Lehtonen, A. & Viitanen, M. Loneliness of older people aged 70: a comparison of two Finnish cohorts born 20 years apart. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 61, 254–260 (2015).
Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L. & Pennak, S. An historical framework for cohort differences in intelligence. Res. Hum. Dev. 2, 43–67 (2005).
Google Scholar
Kupper, L. L., Janis, J. M., Karmous, A. & Greenberg, B. G. Statistical age-period-cohort analysis: a review and critique. J. Chronic Dis. 38, 811–830 (1985).
Google Scholar
Santos, H. C., Varnum, M. E. W. & Grossmann, I. Global increases in individualism. Psychol. Sci. 28, 1228–1239 (2017).
Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. Cultures And Organizations. Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, And Organizations Across Nations 2nd edn (Sage Publications, 2001).
Sanner, C., Ganong, L. & Coleman, M. Families are socially constructed: pragmatic implications for researchers. J. Family Issues 42, 422–444 (2021).
Jaspers, E. D. T. & Pieters, R. G. M. Materialism across the life span: an age-period-cohort analysis. J. Personality Soc. Psychol. 111, 451–473 (2016).
Dittmar, H., Bond, R., Hurst, M. & Kasser, T. The relationship between materialism and personal well-being: a meta-analysis. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 107, 879–924 (2014).
Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M., Campbell, S. M., Hoffman, B. J. & Lance, C. E. Generational differences in work values: leisure and extrinsic values increasing, social and intrinsic values decreasing. J. Manag. 36, 1117–1142 (2010).
Twenge, J. M. & Kasser, T. Generational changes in materialism and work centrality, 1976–2007: associations with temporal changes in societal insecurity and materialistic role modeling. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 39, 883–897 (2013).
Google Scholar
Riggle, E. D. B. et al. First comes marriage, then comes the election: macro-level event impacts on African American, Latina/x, and White sexual minority women. Sex. Res. Soc. Policy 18, 112–126 (2021).
Ogolsky, B. G., Monk, J. K., Rice, T. M. & Oswald, R. F. Personal well-being across the transition to marriage equality: a longitudinal analysis. J. Family Psychol. 33, 422–432 (2019).
Böger, A. & Huxhold, O. The changing relationship between partnership status and loneliness: effects related to aging and historical time. J. Gerontol. B 75, 1423–1432 (2020). This exemplary empirical study used an elegant design to examine how historical shifts in social norms affect the link between partnership status and loneliness.
van Tilburg, T. G., Aartsen, M. J. & van der Pas, S. Loneliness after divorce: a cohort comparison among Dutch young-old adults. Eur. Sociol. Rev. 31, 243–252 (2015).
Wang, H. & Wellman, B. Social connectivity in America: changes in adult friendship network size from 2002 to 2007. Am. Behav. Sci. 53, 1148–1169 (2010).
Nowland, R., Necka, E. A. & Cacioppo, J. T. Loneliness and social internet use. Pathways to reconnection in a digital world? Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 13, 70–87 (2018). This is a comprehensive and nuanced review on the link between social media use and loneliness.
Google Scholar
Sbarra, D. A., Briskin, J. L. & Slatcher, R. B. Smartphones and close relationships: the case for an evolutionary mismatch. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 14, 596–618 (2019).
Google Scholar
Orben, A. & Przybylski, A. K. The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nat. Hum. Behav. 3, 173–182 (2019).
Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M., Spitzberg, B. H. & Campbell, W. K. Less in-person social interaction with peers among U.S. adolescents in the 21st century and links to loneliness. J. Soc. Pers. Relat. 36, 1892–1913 (2019).
Hancock, J., Liu, S. X., Luo, M. & Mieczkowski, H. Psychological well-being and social media use: a meta-analysis of associations between social media use and depression, anxiety, loneliness, eudaimonic, hedonic and social well-being. SSRN J. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4053961 (2022).
Google Scholar
Orben, A. Teenagers, screens and social media: a narrative review of reviews and key studies. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiat. Epidemiol. 55, 407–414 (2020).
Andrews, D. & Caldera Sánchez, A. Residential mobility and public policy in OECD countries. OECD J. Econ. Stud. 2011, https://doi.org/10.1787/19952856 (2011).
McAuliffe, M., Khadria, B. & Bauloz, C. World Migration Report 2020 10th edn (IOM, 2019).
Palinkas, L. A. & Wong, M. Global climate change and mental health. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32, 12–16 (2020).
Google Scholar
Wrzus, C., Hänel, M., Wagner, J. & Neyer, F. J. Social network changes and life events across the life span: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 139, 53–80 (2013).
Google Scholar
Choi, H. & Oishi, S. The psychology of residential mobility: a decade of progress. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32, 72–75 (2020).
Google Scholar
Oishi, S. & Talhelm, T. Residential mobility. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21, 425–430 (2012).
Koelet, S. & de Valk, H. A. G. Social networks and feelings of social loneliness after migration: the case of European migrants with a native partner in Belgium. Ethnicities 16, 610–630 (2016).
Dolberg, P., Shiovitz-Ezra, S. & Ayalon, L. Migration and changes in loneliness over a 4-year period: the case of older former Soviet Union immigrants in Israel. Eur. J. Ageing 13, 287–297 (2016).
Google Scholar
Barrett, A. & Mosca, I. Social isolation, loneliness and return migration: evidence from older Irish adults. J. Ethnic Migr. Stud. 39, 1659–1677 (2013).
Oishi, S. et al. Residential mobility increases motivation to expand social network: but why. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 49, 217–223 (2013).
Heu, L. C., van Zomeren, M. & Hansen, N. Far away from home and (not) lonely: relational mobility in migrants’ heritage culture as a potential protection from loneliness. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 77, 140–150 (2020).
Crimmins, E. M. & Beltrán-Sánchez, H. Mortality and morbidity trends: is there compression of morbidity? J. Gerontol. B 66, 75–86 (2011).
Mathers, C. D., Stevens, G. A., Boerma, T., White, R. A. & Tobias, M. I. Causes of international increases in older age life expectancy. Lancet 385, 540–548 (2015).
Google Scholar
Bloom, D. & Canning, D. Global demographic change: dimensions and economic significance. Pop. Aging Human Cap. Accum. Product. Growth 34, 17–51 (2008).
Dykstra, P. A. Older adult loneliness. Myths and realities. Eur. J. Ageing 6, 91–100 (2009).
Google Scholar
Bergstrom, C. T., West & Jevin, D. Calling Bullshit: The Art Of Scepticism In A Data-driven World (Random House, 2020).
Hansen, T. & Slagsvold, B. Late-life loneliness in 11 European countries: results from the Generations and Gender Survey. Soc. Indic. Res. 129, 445–464 (2016).
Vozikaki, M., Papadaki, A., Linardakis, M. & Philalithis, A. Loneliness among older European adults: results from the survey of health, aging and retirement in Europe. J. Public Health 26, 613–624 (2018).
Yang, K. & Victor, C. R. Age and loneliness in 25 European nations. Ageing Soc. 31, 1368–1388 (2011). This is one of the most comprehensive empirical studies on cross-national differences in the link between age and loneliness.
Zoutewelle-Terovan, M. & Liefbroer, A. C. Swimming against the stream: non-normative family transitions and loneliness in later life across 12 nations. Gerontologist 58, 1096–1108 (2018).
Google Scholar
Surkalim, D. L. et al. The prevalence of loneliness across 113 countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. Med. J. 376, e067068 (2022).
Stickley, A. et al. Loneliness: its correlates and association with health behaviours and outcomes in nine countries of the former Soviet Union. PLoS ONE 8, e67978 (2013).
Google Scholar
Billiet, J., Koch, A. & Philippens, M. in Measuring Attitudes Cross-Nationally: Lessons From The European Social Survey Ch. 6 (eds Jowell, R. et al.) 107–129 (Sage Publications, 2007).
van Staden, W. C. W. & Coetzee, K. Conceptual relations between loneliness and culture. Curr. Opin. Psychiat. 23, 524–529 (2010).
Rokach, A. The effect of gender and culture on loneliness: a mini review. Emerg. Sci. J. 2, 59–64 (2018).
Hawkley, L. C., Steptoe, A., Schumm, L. P. & Wroblewski, K. Comparing loneliness in England and the United States, 2014–2016: differential item functioning and risk factor prevalence and impact. Soc. Sci. Med. 265, 113467 (2020).
Google Scholar
Maes, M., Wang, J. M., van den Noortgate, W. & Goossens, L. Loneliness and attitudes toward being alone in Belgian and Chinese adolescents: examining measurement invariance. J. Child. Family Stud. 25, 1408–1415 (2016).
Hawkley, L. C., Duvoisin, R., Ackva, J., Murdoch, J. C. & Luhmann, M. Loneliness in older adults in the USA and Germany: measurement invariance and validation. NORC at the University of Chicago https://www.norc.org/PDFs/Working%20Paper%20Series/WP-2015-004.pdf (2016).
Hawkley, L. C., Gu, Y., Luo, Y.-J. & Cacioppo, J. T. The mental representation of social connections: generalizability extended to Beijing adults. PLoS ONE 7, e44065 (2012).
Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. Dimensionalizing cultures: the Hofstede model in context. Online Readings Psychol. Cult. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014 (2011).
Google Scholar
Lykes, V. A. & Kemmelmeier, M. What predicts loneliness? Cultural difference between individualistic and collectivistic societies in Europe. J. Crosscultural Psychol. 45, 468–490 (2014).
Heu, L. C., van Zomeren, M. & Hansen, N. Lonely alone or lonely together? A cultural-psychological examination of individualism-collectivism and loneliness in five European countries. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 45, 780–793 (2019).
Google Scholar
Barreto, M. et al. Exploring the nature and variation of the stigma associated with loneliness. J. Soc. Pers. Relat. 39, 2658–2679 (2022).
Google Scholar
Kerr, N. A. & Stanley, T. B. Revisiting the social stigma of loneliness. Pers. Individ. Diff. 171, 110482 (2021).
Pescosolido, B. A. & Martin, J. K. The stigma complex. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 41, 87–116 (2015).
Google Scholar
Liu, S. S., Morris, M. W., Talhelm, T. & Yang, Q. Ingroup vigilance in collectivistic cultures. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 14538–14546 (2019).
Google Scholar
Fokkema, T., de Jong Gierveld, J. & Dykstra, P. A. Cross-national differences in older adult loneliness. J. Psychol. Interdiscip. Appl. 146, 201–228 (2012).
Barreto, M. et al. Loneliness around the world: age, gender, and cultural differences in loneliness. Pers. Individ. Diff. 169, 110066 (2021).
Swader, C. S. Loneliness in Europe: personal and societal individualism-collectivism and their connection to social isolation. Soc. Forces 97, 1307–1336 (2019).
Wong, Y. J., Wang, S.-Y. & Klann, E. M. The emperor with no clothes: a critique of collectivism and individualism. Arch. Sci. Psychol. 6, 251–260 (2018).
Heu, L. C., van Zomeren, M. & Hansen, N. Does loneliness thrive in relational freedom or restriction? The culture–loneliness framework. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 25, 60–72 (2021). This theoretical article introduces the culture–loneliness framework to explain national differences in loneliness.
LaRose, R., Connolly, R., Lee, H., Li, K. & Hales, K. D. Connection overload? A cross cultural study of the consequences of social media connection. Inf. Syst. Manag. 31, 59–73 (2014).
Scharf, T. & de Jong Gierveld, J. Loneliness in urban neighbourhoods: an Anglo-Dutch comparison. Eur. J. Ageing 5, 103 (2008).
Google Scholar
Beer, A. et al. Regional variation in social isolation amongst older Australians. Reg. Studies Reg. Sci. 3, 170–184 (2016).
Buecker, S., Ebert, T., Götz, F. M., Entringer, T. M. & Luhmann, M. In a lonely place: investigating regional differences in loneliness. Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci. 12, 147–155 (2021).
Marquez, J. et al. Loneliness in young people: a multilevel exploration of social ecological influences and geographic variation. J. Public Health https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab402 (2022).
Google Scholar
Domènech-Abella, J. et al. The role of socio-economic status and neighborhood social capital on loneliness among older adults: evidence from the Sant Boi Aging Study. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiat. Epidemiol. 52, 1237–1246 (2017).
Menec, V. H., Newall, N. E., Mackenzie, C. S., Shooshtari, S. & Nowicki, S. Examining individual and geographic factors associated with social isolation and loneliness using Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) data. PLoS ONE 14, e0211143 (2019).
Google Scholar
Victor, C. R. & Pikhartova, J. Lonely places or lonely people? Investigating the relationship between loneliness and place of residence. BMC Public Health 20, 778 (2020).
Google Scholar
Matthews, T. et al. Loneliness and neighborhood characteristics: a multi-informant, nationally representative study of young adults. Psychol. Sci. 30, 765–775 (2019). This is an exemplary study on the role of neighbourhood characteristics in explaining geographical differences in loneliness.
Google Scholar
Yu, R., Cheung, O., Lau, K. & Woo, J. Associations between perceived neighborhood walkability and walking time, wellbeing, and loneliness in community-dwelling older Chinese people in Hong Kong. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101199 (2017).
Google Scholar
Kearns, A., Whitley, E., Tannahill, C. & Ellaway, A. ‘Lonesome town’? Is loneliness associated with the residential environment, including housing and neighbourhood factors? J. Community Psychol. 43, 849–867 (2015).
Google Scholar
Timmermans, E. et al. Social and physical neighbourhood characteristics and loneliness among older adults: results from the MINDMAP project. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 75, 464–469 (2021).
Google Scholar
Götz, F. M., Gosling, S. D. & Rentfrow, P. J. Small effects: the indispensable foundation for a cumulative psychological science. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 17, 1745691620984483 (2022).
Twenge, J. M. et al. Worldwide increases in adolescent loneliness. J. Adolesc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.06.006 (2021).
Google Scholar
Bessaha, M. L. et al. A systematic review of loneliness interventions among non-elderly adults. Clin. Soc. Work. J. 48, 110–125 (2020).
Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C. & Cacioppo, J. T. A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 15, 219–266 (2011). This is a comprehensive meta-analysis on loneliness interventions, with a particular focus on which characteristics of interventions are linked to a greater efficacy.
Google Scholar
Cohen-Mansfield, J. & Perach, R. Interventions for alleviating loneliness among older persons: a critical review. Am. J. Health Promotion 29, e109–e125 (2015).
Kaspar, R., Wenner, J. & Tesch-Römer, C. Einsamkeit in der Hochaltrigkeit. SSOAR https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/77004 (2022).
Langenkamp, A. Enhancing, suppressing or something in between — loneliness and five forms of political participation across Europe. Eur. Soc. 23, 311–332 (2021).
Jokela, M. Neighborhoods, psychological distress, and the quest for causality. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32, 22–26 (2020).
Google Scholar
Grosz, M. P., Rohrer, J. M. & Thoemmes, F. The taboo against explicit causal inference in nonexperimental psychology. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15, 1243–1255 (2020).
Google Scholar
Rohrer, J. M. Thinking clearly about correlations and causation: graphical causal models for observational data. Adv. Methods Pract. Psychol. Sci. 1, 27–42 (2018).
Cheung, F. et al. The impact of the Syrian conflict on population well-being. Nat. Commun. 11, 3899 (2020).
Google Scholar
Grossmann, I. & Varnum, M. E. W. Social structure, infectious diseases, disasters, secularism, and cultural change in America. Psychol. Sci. 26, 311–324 (2015).
Google Scholar
Buecker, S. et al. Changes in daily loneliness for German residents during the first four weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Soc. Sci. Med. 265, 113541 (2020).
Google Scholar
Bianchi, E. C. How the economy shapes the way we think about ourselves and others. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32, 120–123 (2020).
Google Scholar
Buecker, S. & Horstmann, K. T. Loneliness and social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eur. Psychol. 26, 272–284 (2021).
Luchetti, M. et al. The trajectory of loneliness in response to COVID-19. Am. Psychol. 75, 897–908 (2020).
Google Scholar
Aknin, L. B. et al. Mental health during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic: a review and recommendations for moving forward. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 17, 915–936 (2022).
Google Scholar
Carey, R. M. & Markus, H. R. Social class shapes the form and function of relationships and selves. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 18, 123–130 (2017).
Google Scholar
Johnson, B. T., Cromley, E. K. & Marrouch, N. Spatiotemporal meta-analysis: reviewing health psychology phenomena over space and time. Health Psychol. Rev. 11, 280–291 (2017). This article provides an introduction to spatiotemporal meta-analysis, a method that can be used to study phenomena across space and time simultaneously.
Google Scholar
Helliwell, J. F. et al. (eds). World Happiness Report 2021 (Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2021).
Maes, M., Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., van den Noortgate, W. & Goossens, L. Gender differences in loneliness across the lifespan: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Pers. 33, 642–654 (2019).
Hsieh, N. & Hawkley, L. Loneliness in the older adult marriage: associations with dyadic aversion, indifference, and ambivalence. J. Soc. Pers. Relation. 35, 1319–1339 (2018).
Coyle, C. E. & Dugan, E. Social isolation, loneliness and health among older adults. J. Aging Health 24, 1346–1363 (2012).
Google Scholar
Russell, D. W. UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): reliability, validity, and factor structure. J. Pers. Assess. 66, 20–40 (1996).
Google Scholar
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A. & Cutrona, C. E. The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 39, 472–480 (1980).
Google Scholar
Wang, X. D., Wang, X. L. & Ma, H. Handbook Of Mental Health Assessment (Chinese Mental Health Journal Press, 1999).
Hawkley, L. C., Wroblewski, K., Kaiser, T., Luhmann, M. & Schumm, L. P. Are U.S. older adults getting lonelier? Age, period, and cohort differences. Psychol. Aging 34, 1144–1157 (2019).
Google Scholar
Trzesniewski, K. H. & Donnellan, M. B. Rethinking “Generation Me”: a study of cohort effects from 1976-2006. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 5, 58–75 (2010).
Google Scholar
Arsenijevic, J. & Groot, W. Does household help prevent loneliness among the elderly? An evaluation of a policy reform in the Netherlands. BMC Public Health 18, 1104 (2018).
Google Scholar
Börsch-Supan, A. et al. Data resource profile: the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). Int. J. Epidemiol. 42, 992–1001 (2013).
Google Scholar
Beller, J. & Wagner, A. Loneliness and health: the moderating effect of cross-cultural individualism/collectivism. J. Aging Health 32, 1516–1527 (2020).
Google Scholar
Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C. & Cacioppo, J. T. A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: results from two population-based studies. Res. Aging 26, 655–672 (2004).
Google Scholar
Domènech-Abella, J. et al. The association between socioeconomic status and depression among older adults in Finland, Poland and Spain: a comparative cross-sectional study of distinct measures and pathways. J. Affect. Disord. 241, 311–318 (2018).
Google Scholar
Leonardi, M. et al. Determinants of health and disability in ageing population: the COURAGE in Europe Project (collaborative research on ageing in Europe). Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 21, 193–198 (2014).
Google Scholar
Radloff, L. S. The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl. Psychol. Meas. 1, 385–401 (1977).
de Jong Gierveld, J. & van Tilburg, T. G. A 6-item scale for overall, emotional, and social loneliness. Res. Aging 28, 582–598 (2006).
Fokkema, T., Kveder, A., Hiekel, N., Emery, T. & Liefbroer, A. C. Generations and Gender Programme Wave 1 data collection. Demogr. Res. 34, 499–524 (2016).
Reif, K. & Melich, A. Euro-Barometer 37.2: Elderly Europeans, April–May 1992 (ICPSR 9958). ICPSR https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/studies/9958 (2008).
Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). ESS3 Data Documentation. https://doi.org/10.21338/NSD-ESS3-2006 (2018).
Sauter, S. R., Kim, L. P. & Jacobsen, K. H. Loneliness and friendlessness among adolescents in 25 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Child. Adolesc. Ment. Health 25, 21–27 (2020).
Google Scholar
Sundström, G., Fransson, E., Malmberg, B. & Davey, A. Loneliness among older Europeans. Eur. J. Ageing 6, 267 (2009).
Google Scholar
Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). ESS7 Data Documentation. https://doi.org/10.21338/NSD-ESS7-2014 (2018).
Vancampfort, D. et al. Leisure-time sedentary behavior and loneliness among 148,045 adolescents aged 12–15 years from 52 low- and middle-income countries. J. Affect. Disord. 251, 149–155 (2019).
Google Scholar
Vancampfort, D. et al. Physical activity and loneliness among adults aged 50 years or older in six low- and middle-income countries. Int. J. Geriatric Psychiat. 34, 1855–1864 (2019).
